OpenGL(R) 1.1 Release for Windows(R) 95

OpenGL(R) 1.1 Release for Windows(R) 95
---------------------------------------

1.  OpenGL Functionality Notes
2.  Redistributable components for Windows 95


1.  Functionality Notes
-----------------------

The OpenGL API is supported on a variety of graphics hardware; the
software in this release provides support for graphics hardware including
basic emulation on any video adapter that is supported with the operating
system, and accelerated graphics hardware that is supported by an OpenGL
mini-client driver (MCD) or an OpenGL installable client driver (ICD).
This release of OpenGL will run on all supported hardware under
Windows 95, including VGA and Super VGA 16 color mode displays.

The OpenGL runtime libraries for Windows 95 are not bundled with the
Windows 95 operating system currently, but application developers may freely
redistribute from this SDK along with their applications to other Windows 95
systems.  In addition, the runtime libraries have been bundled with the
Windows 95 operating system in the OEM system release 2, so OEM Windows 95
systems shipping later in 1996 will begin appearing with the OpenGL runtime
libraries included.

To achieve good shaded rendering with OpenGL applications, you should use a
color graphics mode with 256 or more colors.  Reasonable shading is
possible for most OpenGL applications with 256 colors.

The Windows NT 4.0 and Windows 95 releases of OpenGL includes new functionality
and performance enhancements.  These include:

1) A complete implementation of OpenGL 1.1.  OpenGL 1.1 contains several
functions, including vertex array, polygon offset, logic ops, and several new
functions for handling textures.  The vertex array and texture calls are
particularly significant, as they may enable order of magnitude performance
improvements in some applications.

2) Overlay planes extensions.  These Microsoft OpenGL extensions permit
applications to manage and render into overlay planes where supported
in the graphics hardware.  This permits applications to bring up dialog boxes
and other UI features without overwriting 3D renderings.

3) Extended metafile support.  Applications may encapsulate OpenGL calls and
data in GDI extended metafiles.  This, together with NT 4.0 print spooler
enhancements for remote metafile rendering, makes it possible to print OpenGL
graphics at high resolution on the print server.  This feature is limited to
the Windows NT release.

4) Microsoft extensions.  The Microsoft OpenGL implementation also supports
these performance extensions: GL_WIN_swap_hint, GL_EXT_bgra, and
GL_EXT_paletted_texture.  They improve the performance of some applications
significantly.

5) Performance.  The software renderer has been tuned for this release.
Performance tuning has been carried out for the front end of the OpenGL
pipeline as well as for rendering particular primitives, especially
anti-aliased lines and texturing.  Software rendering is generally 2-4x
faster.

6) OpenGL hardware acceleration.  This release of OpenGL supports a simpler
mini-client driver (MCD) model to accelerate 3D graphics operations.  In
particular, Windows NT 4.0 includes a Matrox Millennium mini-client driver
that accelerates OpenGL functions.  A corresponding driver for Windows 95
is expected to be available later this year.


2. Redistributable components for Windows 95
--------------------------------------------

The OpenGL redistributable components for Windows 95 are in the DLL
directory.  It contains the runtime dynamic-link libraries for OpenGL and
GLU.  We recommend either of two methods for redistributing these libraries
with your application on Windows 95 (for Windows NT, the libraries are
bundled with the operating system and should not be redistributed):

  1) In your setup program, install these libraries in the
     application directory along with your application.  This gives you
     greater control over the version of OpenGL that your application
     will link to (an issue if other applications install other versions
     of the library), but also gives you greater responsibility for
     updating your customers' libraries if and when that is required
     to address defects, add functionality, improve performance, etc.
  2) In your setup program, install these libraries in the windows
     system directory.  If you do this, you should use the Win32 setup
     API call VerInstallFile to help prevent installing an older version
     of the libraries over another application's installation of a more
     recent version of the libraries.

OpenGL is a registered trademark of Silicon Graphics, Inc.
Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation.

OpenGL Configuring

OpenGL Configuring

Windows:
versions:
7 Enterprise
Vista x64 Enterprise Edition SP2 (Build 6002)
Vista Enterprise Edition SP2 (Build 6002)
XP Professional Edition SP3 5.1 (Build 2600)

Visual Studio 2012 version 11.0.51106.01 Update 1
.NET Framework version 4.5.50709

Visual Studio 2010 version 10.0.420219.1 SP1Rel
.NET Framework version 4.0.30319 SP1Rel

Visual Studio 2008 version 9.0.21022.8.RTM
.NET Framework version 3.5 SP1

    Installation/verification:

    OpenGL comes with the OS and Visual Studio 2012/2010/2008 installations, to verify:

        runtime libraries:
        C:\Windows\System32\{opengl,glu}32.dll
        on 64-bit Windows:
        C:\Windows\SysWOW64\{opengl,glu}32.dll

        header files:
        C:\Program Files\Microsoft SDKs\Windows\v7.1A\Include\gl\{GL,GLU}.h
        ["Program Files (x86)" for 64-bit Windows; VS2010: v7.0A, VS2008: v6.0A]

        linker library:
        C:\Program Files\Microsoft SDKs\Windows\v7.1A\Lib\OpenGL32.Lib
        ["Program Files (x86)" for 64-bit Windows; VS2010: v7.0A, VS2008: v6.0A]

    If GLUT is not installed, you can install it by downloading the glut zip file (v. 3.7.6) (web site) and copying its files as follows:

        runtime library:
        C:\Program Files\Microsoft Visual Studio *\VC\bin\glut32.dll
        ["Program Files (x86)" for 64-bit Windows; The '*' matches your version of VS: 11.0 for VS2012, 10.0 for VS2010, 9.0 for VS2008]

        header file:
        C:\Program Files\Microsoft Visual Studio *\VC\include\GL\glut.h
        ["Program Files (x86)" for 64-bit Windows; You have to create the "GL" directory]

        linker library:
        C:\Program Files\Microsoft Visual Studio *\VC\lib\glut32.lib
        ["Program Files (x86)" for 64-bit Windows]

    If you don't have a VC folder, try instead:

        runtime library:
        C:\Windows\system\glut32.dll

        header file:
        C:\Program Files\Microsoft SDKs\Windows\v7.0A\Include\GL\glut.h
        ["Program Files (x86)" for 64-bit Windows; VS2008: v6.0A]

        linker library:
        C:\Program Files\Microsoft SDKs\Windows\v7.0A\Lib\glut32.lib
        ["Program Files (x86)" for 64-bit Windows; VS2008: v6.0A]

    Or you may choose to install freeglut for Windows.

    Later in your OpenGL source files, include the following line:

    #include <GL/glut.h>

    You don't need to include gl.h and glu.h, as they are already included in glut.h.
    For an example, see the provided sample source code.

    Command line make: see the instructions for Cygwin below.

    Visual Studio 2012/2010/2008 project (graphical step-by-step, all the screen shots are from VS2008, but are applicable to the newer versions):

        Create a new project:

            Select "File→New→Project" (Fig. 26)
            Choose a template for your new project:
            "Visual C++→Win32→Win32 Console Application", give the project a name, e.g., "sampleapp" and click "OK" (Fig. 27)
            On the "Welcome to the Win32 Application Wizard" page, click "Next >" (Fig. 28)
            On the "Application Setting" dialog box, under "Additional options" tick "Empty project", then click "Finish" (Fig. 29)

        Add source files:

        Right click on your project, for example, "sampleapp", on the third (second) line of the "Solution Explorer" pane on the right (left) to "Add→Existing Item" (Fig. 30),
        select your source and header file(s), for example, the provided sample.c, and click "Add"

        Add libraries:

            Right click on "sampleapp" again and select "Properties" to tell the linker which libraries need to be added (Fig. 31)
            On the "Property Pages", under "Configuration:" tell VS to add the additional libraries to "All Configurations" (Fig. 32)
            Select "Configuration Properties→Linker→Input" on the left pane, and enter:

            opengl32.lib;glu32.lib;glut32.lib;
            [VS2008: with spaces in place of the semicolons]

            as "Additional Dependencies" on the top of the right pane, hit RETURN and then click "Apply" (Fig. 33).

        Optional:

        To prevent your program from opening a console window, while still on the "Property Pages",
        select "Configuration Properties→Linker→Command Line" on the left pane, and enter:

        /SUBSYSTEM:WINDOWS /ENTRY:mainCRTStartup

        as "Additional options" at the bottom of the right pane, then click "Apply" (Fig. 34)

        You may not want to disable the console window if you print out messages to the console (see next step).

        Close the "Property Pages" pane by clicking "Ok", then click on the play button on the second menu bar (   )
        to build and run the program. If you print out messages to the console, run the program using Ctl-F5 instead,
        to keep the cmd window from exiting after the program exits.

        To distribute your program, include glut32.dll with your distribution as it's most likely not installed on most Windows systems.

OpenGL

What is OpenGL

As a software interface for graphics hardware OpenGL renders multidimensional objects into a frame-buffer. The Microsoft implementation of OpenGL for the Windows operating system is industry standard software for graphics with which programmers are create high-quality still and three-dimensional animation.

Applicable

OpenGL is built for compatibility across hardware and operating systems. This architecture makes it easy to port OpenGL programs from one system to another. While each operating system has unique requirements, the OpenGL code in many programs can be used as is.

Developer Audience

Designed for use by C/C++ programmers, OpenGL requires familiarity with the Windows GUI as well as message-driven architecture.

Run-time Requirements

OpenGL requires NT, Windows 2000 or 95/98. For more information on which operating systems are required for a particular function, see the Requirements section of the documentation for the function.

Write the algorithm for finding the maximum and minimum

  Write the algorithm for finding the maximum and minimum  and explin?

The problem is to find the maximum and minimum items in a set of ‘n’ elements. 

Though this problem may look so simple as to be contrived, it allows us to demonstrate

divide-and-comquer in simple setting. 

Algorithm straight MaxMin(a,n,max,min)

//set max to the maximum and min to the minimum of a[1:n]

{

max := min: = a[i];

for i = 2 to n do

{

if(a[i] >max) then max: = a[i];

if(a[i] >min) then min: = a[i];

}

}

Algorithm maxmin(I,j,max,min)

{

if( I = j) then max := min:=a[I];

else if(I=j-1) then

{

if(a[I]<a[j]) then

{

max := a[j];min := a[I];

}

else

{

max:=a[I];

min := a[j]; }}

else

{

mid := [(I+j)/2];

maxmin(I,mid,max,min);

maxmin(mid+1,j,max1,min1);

if(max<max1) then max := max1;

if(min>min1) then min:=min1;

}} 

## Define minimum cost spanning tree. Draw the minimum cost spanning follow graph using prims algorithm .

##Define minimum cost spanning tree. Draw the minimum cost spanning  follow graph using prims algorithm  .

Ans:-Minimum Cost Spanning Tree:Let G=(V,E) be a connected graph where for all (u,v) in E there is a cost vector C[u,v].

·          A graph is connected if every pair of vertices is connected by a path.

A spanning tree for G is a free tree that connects all vertices in G.

·          A connected acyclic graph is also called a free tree.

The cost of the spanning tree is the sum of the cost of all edges in the tree. We usually want to find a spanning tree of minimum cost.

Big O, Wmega and theta notation

                                               Big O,  Wmega and theta notation

Big oh

The function f(n) = O(g(n)) iff there exist positive constants C and no such that

f(n)≤  C * g(n) for all n, n ≥n0.

Omega

The function f(n) =Ω   (g(n)) iff there exist positive constant C and no such that

f(n) C * g(n) for all n, n ≥ n0.

Theta

The function f(n) =θ (g(n)) iff there exist positive constant C1, C2,  and no such that

C1 g(n)≤  f(n) ≤ C2 g(n) for all n, n ≥ n0. 

The time complexity of the algorithm

    The time complexity of the algorithm

      In computer science, the time complexity of an algorithm quantifies the amount of time taken by an algorithm to run as a function of the length of the string representing the input[1]:226. The time complexity of an algorithm is commonly expressed using big O notation, which excludes coefficients and lower order terms. When expressed this way, the time complexity is said to be described asymptotically, i.e., as the input size goes to infinity. For example, if the time required by an algorithm on all inputs of size n is at most 5n3 + 3n, the asymptotic time complexity is O(n3).

Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm, where an elementary operation takes a fixed amount of time to perform. Thus the amount of time taken and the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm differ by at most a constant factor.

Since an algorithm's performance time may vary with different inputs of the same size, one commonly uses the worst-case time complexity of an algorithm, denoted as T(n), which is defined as the maximum amount of time taken on any input of size n. Time complexities are classified by the nature of the function T(n). For instance, an algorithm with T(n) = O(n) is called a linear time algorithm, and an algorithm with T(n) = O(2n) is said to be an exponential time algorithm.

Pseudocode. Briefly explain ten pseudocode convention.

pseudocode:-Pseudocode and flowcharts are both popular ways of representing algorithms. Pseudocode has been chosen as the primary method of representing an algorithm because it is easy to read and write, and allows the programmer to concentrate on the logic of the problem. Pseudocode is really structured English. It is English that has been formalised and abbreviated to look like the high-level computer languages.

Pseudo code conventions:

1. Comments begin with // and continue until the end of line.

1.  Blocks are indicated and matching braces.: { and }.

2.  An identifier begins with a letter

3.  Assignment of values to variables is done using the assignment statement

<variable> := <expression>

4.  There are two Boolean values true and false

5.  Elements of multi dimensional array are accessed using [ and ].

6.  The following looping statements are employed: for, while and repeat – until

7.  A conditional statement has the following forms:

If <condition> then <statement>;

8.  Input and output are done using the instructions read and write.

9.  There only and one type of procedure: Algorithm

An algorithm consists of heading and body. The heading takes the form

Algorithm, different criteria of the computer algorithm

Algorithm:-  An algorithm is a finite set of instructions that, if followed, accomplishes a particular ta

  
In addition, all algorithms must satisfy the following criteria:

Input:   zero or more quantities are externally supplied.

Output:  At least one quantity is produced.

Definiteness:   Each instruction is clear and unambiguous.

Finiteness:   if we trace out the instructions of an algoritm, then for all cases, the algorithm terminates   after a finite number of steps.

Effectiveness :       Every instruction must be very basic  so that it can be carried out , in principle, by  a person using only pencil and paper . it is not enough that each operation be definite as in criterion 3; it  is also must be feasible.

Analyzing Adam Smith’s theory in the graph

 Analyzing Adam Smith’s theory in the graph:

            According to Adam Smith’s theory labor cost / resource cost is considered. And it can be analyzed through the following graph:

In the above figure the horizontal line represents product X and the vertical line represents product Y. A A^́   is the production possibility of country A. And BB is the production possibility of country B. If country A uses its resources in producing product X then its production will be OA (10units) and if it produces product Y then production will be OA (5units).

           

                                                

Economic gains from absolute cost advantage trade theory of Adam Smith:

Economic gains from absolute cost advantage trade theory of Adam Smith

            The trade or economic gain from the absolute cost advantage theory of Adam Smith can be discuss through the following way—

1.      Increase world’s total production.

2.      Possibility of specialization.

3.      Increase consumption.

1. Increase world’s total production:

            According to Adam Smith’s absolute cost advantage trade theory, trade occurred between countries that can bring gain for the countries. If there would be no trade then the both countries had to produce the both products. Then according to above mentioned table the total production would be produce X, 10+5 = 15 units

                                                               And Y, 5+10 = 15 units

                                                              

                                                                                      = 30 units     

That means the total production would be 30 units of the two countries. But it there is trade between these two countries then country A only produce product X and country B produce only product Y. And when country A will produce only product X then its production will be 20 units and production of country B will be 20 units of product Y. Thus total production will be 20+20=40 units. Before trade total production was 30 units and after trade it has been 40 units. So, it can be said that because of trade according to absolute advantage theory world wide total production will be increased.

2. Possibility of specialization:

            According to Adam Smith absolute specialization is possible through trade. Because when a country become specialized in producing a special product it can make sure the proper utilization of resources.

3. Increase consumption:

            Through specialization more production is possible. Then it is also possible to export the surplus product to another country. And the opposite country can get the opportunity to consume the products by import. And in result it increase the consumption and the society can be benefited from it.

Absolute Cost Advantage Trade Theory of Adam Smith:

Absolute Cost Advantage Trade Theory of Adam Smith.

            According to Adam Smith a country may have full facilities to produce some specific products than other countries. Which country have the full facilities to produce a specific product the country specialize the production of that product. And avoid the production of the products for what the country have not full facilities. Finally it will import the non-produced products from another country.

Applications:

1.      Two countries.

2.      Two products.

3.      Unit of production (Resource).

4.      Avoiding transportation cost.

Source of Trade:

[Production unit of seven (7) days based on resources]

Country	Product X  (unit)	Product Y (unit)	Domestic Production ratio
A	10	5	10:5=2:1
B	5	10	5:10=1:2

From the above table it is noticed that country A  can produce 10 unit X products or 5 unit Y products by a fixed labour power or resources. On the other hand country B can produce 5 unit X product or 10 unit Y product by a fixed labour power or resource. It can be said that country A has full facilities to produce product X than country B. And country B has definitely full facilities to produce product Y than country A.

            Now, for country A, 10 X > 5Y

            And for country B, 10Y > 5X

As a result according to absolute cost advantage theory there will be a trade relationship between these two countries. Country A will produce and export product X and import product Y. on the other hand country B will do the opposite that means it will produce and export product Y and import product X. Thus trade relation is built between two countries. There may be difference among absolute advantage of different countries. That result in trade. The aim of trade is to gain mutual advantage.

Interrupt

Define interrupt. various interrupt with example  

When a Process is executed by the CPU and when a user Request for another Process then this will create disturbance for the Running Process. This is also called as the Interrupt. Interrupts can be generated by User, Some Error Conditions and also by Software’s and the hardware’s. But CPU will handle all the Interrupts very carefully because when Interrupts are generated then the CPU must handle all the Interrupts Very carefully means the CPU will also Provides Response to the Various Interrupts those are generated. So that When an interrupt has Occurred then the CPU will handle by using the Fetch, decode and Execute Operations.

Types of Interrupts

Generally there are three types o Interrupts those are Occurred For Example 

1)   Internal Interrupt 

2)   Software Interrupt.

3)   External Interrupt.

The External Interrupt occurs when any Input and Output Device request for any Operation and the CPU will Execute that instructions first For Example When a Program is executed and when we move the Mouse on the Screen then the CPU will handle this External interrupt first and after that he will resume with his Operation.

The Internal Interrupts are those which are occurred due to Some Problem in the Execution For Example When a user performing any Operation which contains any Error and which contains any type of Error. So that Internal Interrupts are those which are occurred by the Some Operations or by Some Instructions and the Operations those are not Possible but a user is trying for that Operation. And The Software Interrupts are those which are made some call to the System for Example while we are Processing Some Instructions and when we want to execute one more Application Programs.

Function of BCD adder and diagram

Function of BCD adder and diagram

Binary coded (BCD) full adder performs the addition of two decimal numbers (A0±A3, B0±B3). The look ahead generates the BCD carry terms internally, allowing the 'F583 to then do BD addition correctly. For BCD numbers 0 through 9 at A and B inputs, the BCD sum forms at the output. In the addition of two BCD numbers totaling a number greater than 9, a valid BCD number and a carry will result. For input values larger than 9, the number is converted from binary to BCD. Binary to BCD conversion occurs by grounding one set of inputs, An or Bn, and applying any 4-bit binary number to the other set of inputs. If the input is between 0 and 9, a BCD number occurs at the output. If the binary input falls between 10 and 15, a carry term is generated. Both the carry term and the sum are the BCD equivalent of the binary input. Converting binary numbers greater than 16 may be achieved through cascading 'F583s.

Multiplier Flowchart

Characteristics of RISC and CISC

Characteristics of RISK and CISK

Ans:-

RISC/CISC Characteristics (PowerPC) RISC Technology

Modern programmers use assembly:

•  for hand coding  for speed

•  for debugging

Common features of CISC:

•   many instructions that access memory directly

•   large number of addressing modes

•   variable length instruction encoding

•   support   for misaligned accesses

Common RISC characteristics

•  Load  /store architecture (also called register-register or RR

Architecture  ) which fetches operands and results indirectly from

main memory through a lot of scalar registers.  Other architecture

is storage-storage or SS in which source operands and final

results are retrieved directly from memory.

•  Fixed length instructions which

  (a) are easier to decode than variable length instructions, and

  (b) use fast, inexpensive memory to execute a larger piece of

code.

•  Hardwired controller instructions (as opposed to micro coded

instructions).  This is where RISC really shines as hardware

implementation of instructions is much faster and uses less silicon

real estate than a micro store area.

•  Fused or compound instructions which are heavily optimized for

the most commonly used functions.

•  Pipelined  implementations with goal of executing one instruction

(or more) per machine cycle.

Function of DMA controller

Function of DMA controller

  

The Direct Memory Access (DMA) controller allows I/O devices to transfer data directly to and from memory. This frees the system microprocessor of I/= tasks, resulting in a higher throughput.The functions of the DMA controller can be grouped into two categories: program mode and DMA transfer mode. The DMA controller supports the following:

    * Register an program compatibility with the IBM Personal Computer AT DMA channels                          (8237 compatible mode)

          * 16MB 24-bit address capability for memory and 64Kb 16-bit address capability for I/O

        * Eight (AT only 4?) independent DMA channels capable of transferring data between memory and I/O devices

DMA Controller Operations

The DMA controller does two types of operations:

          * Data transfer between memory and I/O devices

          * Read verifications

Main criteria of parallel processing

Main criteria of parallel processing

PARALLEL PROCESSING

A parallel processing system is able to performconcurrent data processing to achieve faster execution time

The system may have two or more ALUs and beable to execute two or more instructions at thesame time

 A computer employing parallel processing isalso called parallel computer.

Parallel processing classification

ü  Single instruction stream, single data stream ±SISD

ü  Single instruction stream, multiple data stream ±SIMD

ü  Multiple instruction stream, single data stream ±MISD

ü  Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream ±MIMD

The IBM System/360 (S/360)

The IBM System/360 (S/360) 

The IBM System/360 (S/360) was a mainframe computer system family announced by IBM on April 7, 1964, and delivered between 1965 and 1978.[1] It was the first family of computers designed to cover the complete range of applications, from small to large, both commercial and scientific. The design made a clear distinction between architecture and implementation, allowing IBM to release a suite of compatible designs at different prices. All but the most expensive systems used microcode to implement the instruction set, which featured 8-bit byte addressing and binary, decimal and floating-point calculations.

The slowest System/360 models announced in 1964 ranged in speed from 0.0018 to 0.034 MIPS;[2] the fastest models were approximately 50 times as fast[3] with 8 kB and up to 8 MB of internal main memory,[3] though the latter was unusual, and up to 8 megabytes of slower Large Core Storage (LCS). A large system might have as little as 256 kB of main storage, but 512 kB, 768 kB or 1024 kB  was more common. System/360 was extremely successful in the market, allowing customers to purchase a smaller system with the knowledge they would always be able to migrate upward if their needs grew, without reprogramming of application software or replacing peripheral devices. The design is considered by many to be one of the most successful computers in history, influencing computer design for years to come.

The chief architect of System/360 was Gene Amdahl, and the project was managed by Fred Brooks, responsible to Chairman Thomas J. Watson Jr.[3] The commercial release was piloted by another of Watson's lieutenants John R. Opel who managed the launch of IBM’s System 360 mainframe family in 1964.[4]Application level compatibility (with some restrictions) for System/360 software is maintained until present day with the IBM z Series computers. 

Architecture

Architecture

The word architecture can have many meanings. Depending on the context, architecture can refer to:

•  any man-made building or structure
•  a man-made building or structure that is important, large, or highly creative
•  a carefully designed object, such as a chair, a spoon, or a tea kettle
•  a design for a city, town, park, or landscape
•  the art or science of designing and building buildings, structures, objects, and outdoor spaces
•  a building style or method
•  a plan for organizing space
•  the flow of information on a Web page
•  the planned design of any kind of system
•  a systematic arrangement of information or ideas

How to Configure OpenGL

How to Configure OpenGL
freeglut-2.8.1.tar.gz
freeglut-MSVC-2.8.0-1.mp.zip
glew-1.9.0-win32.zip
glut-3.7.6-bin.zip
Setting.maff

Data Music Software Image Recovery Software

Download recovery software

SolutionHome: **Why do we study business? Or Important of studying business.

SolutionHome: **Why do we study business? Or Important of studying business.

SolutionHome: Convert Lower case to upper case by Assembly Language

SolutionHome: Convert Lower case to upper case by Assembly Language

non-preemptive scheduling, Dispatch latency,Turnaround time, Waiting time, Response time

Under non-preemptive scheduling, once the CPU has been allocated to a process, the process keep the CPU until it release the CPU either by terminating or by switching to waiting state.

Dispatch latency – time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and start another running

Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular process

Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue

Response time – amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the first response is produced

Dispatch latency

Dispatch latency – time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and start another running

non-preemptive scheduling

Under non-preemptive scheduling, once the CPU has been allocated to a process, the process keep the CPU until it release the CPU either by terminating or by switching to waiting state

FIFO and LIFO Methods

FIFO and LIFO Methods are accounting techniques used in managing inventory and financial matters involving the amount of money a company has tied up within inventory of produced goods, raw materials, parts, components, or feed stocks. These methods are used to manage assumptions of cost flows related to inventory, stock repurchases (if purchased at different prices), and various other accounting purposes.

FIFO stands for first-in, first-out, meaning that the oldest inventory items are recorded as sold first but do not necessarily mean that the exact oldest physical object has been tracked and sold.

LIFO stands for last-in, first-out, meaning that the most recently produced items are recorded as sold first.

**Basic principles of business. Or, What are the basic principles of business?

**Basic principles of business.

Or, What are the basic principles of business?

Business follows several distinctive principles. Those are-

1.      Specific objective.

2.      Perfect organization structure.

3.      Proper planning.

4.      Optimum location.

5.      Optimum size.

6.      Good location.

7.      Financial solvency.

8.      Risk bearing capacity.

9.      Good human relation.

10. Efficient management.

Now short description of these principles is given below-

1. Specific objectives:

            Each and every business Should have specific objectives. Because if business does not possess specific objectives then it will not be successful.

2. Perfect organization structure:

Organization combines various activities, employees and departments. That is why business must have a perfect organization structure.

3. Proper planning:

Planning is an important function of business, so to be successful and profitable business must be well planned.

4. Optimum capital:

            The major factor of production is capital. No business activity can run without capital. So to manage optimum capital is an important principle of business.

5. Optimum size:

            Determining optimum size for the business is another principle of business. Because the success of business largely depend on its optimum size.

6. Good location:

            To find out a proper location is essential for business. Business location should be selected by considering present conditions and forecasting future situations.

7. Financial solvency:

            Each and every business takes the principle of financial solvency. Because the business which have not enough solvency cannot operate business actives effectively.

8. Risk bearing capacity:

            All business involves risk and uncertainty. Because no risk no gain. That is why more risk brings more profit.

9. Good human relation:

            The overall success of business depends on good human relation. That means there should a good relation among various parties involved in the business.

10. Efficient management:

            Efficiency is the fuel of success. The success of any business depends on efficient management.

            These are the important principles of business.

**Write the Functions of business. Or, Discuss the various functions of business.

**Write the Functions of business.

Or, Discuss the various functions of business.

            Business is the combination of activities those have the motive for earning profit through satisfying human needs and wants. To do this business performs several distinctive activities. Those are as follows-

            1.Planing

            2.Production

            3.Purchases

            4.Financing

            5.Accounting

            6.Advertisement and publicity

            8.Warehousing

            9.Distribution          

            10.Standardization and grading

Now short description of these is given below-

1.Planing: The first and main function is to make plan for production, distribution and financing activities. No business can be successful  without proper planning.

2.Production: Production  means the natural resources turning  into main products that can solve the human needs and wants problem. So production is an important function of business.

3.Purchase:The business organization has to purchase raw materials and other equipments for production function and other related functions. That means whatever the business size or type it must be engaged in purchase.

4.Sales: The equity of products transfer through sales. It is the only source of revenue of the business firm. The success of business is related with the success of sales.

5.Financing: Money or capital is the backbone of the business. Financing means collecting and investing capital in the business operation. So it is an essential task of business.

6.Accounting: Accounting means record the business transactions and determine the profit and loss, cost and revenue etc. By this function the future forecasting of the business can be determined.

7.Advertisement and publicity: The present world is the world of publicity. It is not possible to create customers for the product with advertisement and publicity. And that is why publicity and advertisement is essential for the business.

8.Warehousing: Warehousing is also an important function of business, products are not sold at the time of production, that means it needs to store.

9.Distribution: Ensuring the proper distribution of produced goods and services  is also important function of business. Business perform this activity by transportations.

10.Standardization and grading: Products are standardized based on its quality, weight, size etc. and grading means differentiate products into different categories.

            From the above discussion finally it can be said that these are the major function of business.

**Why do we study business? Or Important of studying business.

**Why do we study business?

Or Important of studying business.

            Business of the combination of activities to earn profit. The study of business will help us to increase our skills, sharpen our knowledge to understand business and economic activities. The important of business can be discussed by the following-

            1.Increasing dependence on others.

            2.International opportunities.

            3.Improving standard of living.

            4.Loping with change

            5.Preventing misconceptions.

            6.Creating employment.

7.Dicision of labor

8.Utilization of resource.

Now short description of these is given below-

1.Increasing dependence on others: Over the years, people have become more and more dependent on others. The knowledge of business is enchangingthe understanding of mutual dependence through business.

2.International opportunities: In the 21^st century, it has become possible for everyone especially individuals educated in business to take existing opportunities that will exist around the world.

3.Improving standard of living: Standard of living indicates measure of how well a person or finally is doing in terms of satisfying needs and wants with goods and services. And this is possible through their knowledge of business.

4.Coping with change: As like as the world itself, business is also dynamic always changing. Coping with both predictable and unpredictable events we must have to study business.

5.Preventing misconceptions: Understanding business also prevents us accepting misconceptions, misinformation and inaccurate data as truths.

6.Creating employment: Business  creates more and more employment opportunities in various industries and trades for skilled as well as unskilled workers.

7.Division of  labor: Division of labor implies the distribution of manpower in a community for obtaining the maximum production and for improving the quality of output.

8.Utilization of resource: A country’s resources are used to produce goods and services that will meet the needs and wants of people . By studying business we can easily know how to use properly our resources.

            So, these are the importance of studying business.